Numbers

Since this is a numerical computing course, a large share of the material will be dedicated to the manipulation of numbers (especially floating-point ones). It is therefore essential that you get a good grasp of how numerical data works in Rust. Which is the purpose of this chapter.

Primitive types

We have previously mentioned some of Rust’s primitive numerical types. Here is the current list:

  • u8, u16, u32, u64 and u128 are fixed-size unsigned integer types. The number indicates their storage width in bits.
  • usize is an unsigned integer type suitable for storing the size of an object in memory. Its size varies from one computer to another : it is 64-bit wide on most computers, but can be as narrow as 16-bit on some embedded platform.
  • i8, i16, i32, i64, i128 and isize are signed versions of the above integer types.
  • f32 and f64 as the single-precision and double-precision IEEE-754 floating-point types.

This list is likely to slowly expand in the future, for example there are proposals for adding f16 and f128 to this list (representing IEEE-754 half-precision and quad-precision floating point types respectively). But for now, these types can only be manipulated via third-party libraries.

Literals

As you have seen, Rust’s integer and floating-point literals look very similar to those of C/++. There are a few minor differences, for example the quality-of-life feature to put some space between digits of large numbers uses the _ character instead of '…

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
println!("A big number: {}", 123_456_789);
}

…but the major difference, by far, is that literals are not typed in Rust. Their type is almost always inferred based on the context in which they are used. And therefore…

  • In Rust, you rarely need typing suffixes to prevent the compiler from truncating your large integers, as is the norm in C/++.
  • Performance traps linked to floating point literals being treated as double precision when you actually want single precision computations are much less common.

Part of the reason why type inference works so well in Rust is that unlike C/++, Rust has no implicit conversions.

Conversions

In C/++, every time one performs arithmetic or assigns values to variables, the compiler will silently insert conversions between number types as needed to get the code to compile. This is problematic for two reasons:

  1. “Narrowing” conversions from types with many bits to types with few bits can lose important information, and thus produce wrong results.
  2. “Promoting” conversions from types with few bits to types with many bits can result in computations being performed with excessive precision, at a performance cost, only for the hard-earned extra result bits to be discarded during the final variable affectation step.

If we were to nonetheless apply this notion in a Rust context, there would be a third Rust-specific problem, which is that implicit conversions would break the type inference of numerical literals in all but the simplest cases. If you can pass variables of any numerical types to functions accepting any other numerical type, then the compiler’s type inference cannot know what is the numerical literal type that you actually intended to use. This would greatly limit type inference effectiveness.

For all these reasons, Rust does not allow for implicit type conversions. A variable of type i8 can only accept values of type i8, a variable of type f32 can only accept values of type f32, and so on.

If you want C-style conversions, the simplest way is to use as casts:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 4.2f32 as i32;
}

As many Rust programmers were unhappy with the lossy nature of these casts, fancier conversions with stronger guarantees (e.g. only work if no information is lost, report an error if overflow occurs) have slowly been made available. But we probably won’t have the time to cover them in this course.

Arithmetic

The syntax of Rust arithmetic is generally speaking very similar to that of C/++, with a few minor exceptions like ! replacing ~ for integer bitwise NOT. But the rules for actually using these operators are quite different.

For the same reason that implicit conversions are not supported, mixed arithmetic between multiple numerical types is not usually supported in Rust either. This will often be a pain points for people used to the C/++ way, as it means that classic C numerical expressions like 4.2 / 2 are invalid and will not compile. Instead, you will need to get used to writing 4.2 / 2.0.

On the flip side, Rust tries harder than C/++ to handler incorrect arithmetic operations in a sensible manner. In C/++, two basic strategies are used:

  1. Some operations, like overflowing unsigned integers or assigning the 123456 literal to an 8-bit integer variable, silently produce results that violate mathematical intuition.
  2. Other operations, like overflowing signed integers or casting floating-point NaNs and infinities to integers, result in undefined behavior. This gives the compiler and CPU license to trash your entire program (not just the function that contains the faulty instruction) in unpredictable ways.

As you may guess by the fact that signed and unsigned integer operations are treated differently, it is quite hard to guess which strategy is being used, even though one is obviously a lot more dangerous than the other.

But due to the performance impact of checking for arithmetic errors at runtime, Rust cannot systematically do so and remain performance-competitive with C/++. So a distinction is made between debug and release builds:

  • In debug builds, invalid arithmetic stops the program using panics. You can think of a panic as something akin to a C++ exception, but which you are not encouraged to recover from.
  • In release builds, invalid arithmetic silently produces wrong results, but never causes undefined behavior.

As one size does not fit all, individual integer and floating-point types also provide methods which re-implement the arithmetic operator with different semantics. For example, the saturating_add() method of integer types handle addition overflow and underflow by returning the maximal or minimal value of the integer type of interest, respectively:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
println!("{}", 42u8.saturating_add(240));  // Prints 255
println!("{}", (-40i8).saturating_add(-100));  // Prints -128
}

Methods

In Rust, unlike in C++, any type can have methods, not just class-like types. As a result, most of the mathematical functions that are provided as free functions in the C and C++ mathematical libraries are provided as methods of the corresponding types in Rust:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 1.2f32;
let y = 3.4f32;
let basic_hypot = (x.powi(2) + y.powi(2)).sqrt();
}

Depending on which operation you are looking at, the effectiveness of this design choice varies. On one hand, it works great for operations which are normally written on the right hand side in mathematics, like raising a number to a certain power. And it allows you to access mathematical operations with less module imports. On the other hand, it looks decidedly odd and Java-like for operations which are normally written in prefix notation in mathematics, like sin() and cos().

If you have a hard time getting used to it, note that prefix notation can be quite easily implemented as a library, see for example prefix-num-ops.

The set of operations that Rust provides on primitive types is also a fair bit broader than that provided by C/++, covering many operations which are traditionally only available via compiler intrinsics or third-party libraries in other languages. Although to C++’s credit, it must be said that the situation has, in a rare turn of events, actually been improved by newer standard revisions.

To know which operations are available via methods, just check the appropriate pages from the standard library’s documentation.

Exercise

Now, go to your code editor, open the examples/02-numerology.rs source file, and address the TODOs in it. The code should compile and runs successfully at the end.

To attempt to compile and run the file after making corrections, you may use the following command in the VSCode terminal:

cargo run --example 02-numerology